Assess the case against Moral Elitism Essay

Moral Elitist believe in a metaphysical claim: there are moral facts and an epistemic claim: we have access to them. According to moral relativism, there are no moral principles or values objectively real and applicable to everyone; rather, what’s right/wrong and good/bad essentially depends on individual preference or culture, and this varies from person to person or group to group. There is not just one moral fact but instead there are millions and we access them be research. There are two different forms of moral elitism one is cultural relativism which based on societies and the other is in the individualistic form, moral subjectivism. Moral relativism seems tolerant (â€Å"you do your thing and I’ll do mine†), but is it reasonable to believe? We should think not. First, let’s look at it in its group or cultural form, cultural relativism. According to cultural relativism, ethics essentially depend on one’s culture or tribe. That is, CR says action X is right or good if the society says X is right or good, and X is wrong or bad if the society says X is wrong or bad. Action X may be right in one culture but wrong in another. Our culture may hold that apartheid is wrong, but another culture may be okay with apartheid, because of a difference in the history of interracial relations. On cultural relativism, then, morality is wholly a matter of cultural invention, i.e. social construction and because such circumstances vary from group to group, so do the constructed moralities. Thus, we shouldn’t impose our culture’s moral values on others, and others shouldn’t push theirs on us. There are no better or worse societies, they are just merely different and so one society cannot judge another. Instead we should be non judgemental and celebrate diversity. Cultural relativism sounds good, but is it sound? Let’s assume that cultural relativism is true, this would be very problematic. The biggest problem for this argument is put forward by G.E Moore’s Open Question. He suggests that the relativists have mis-defined morality, it makes to sense to ask whether society approve of something or it, but does this make it automatically good? This ends up giving support to obviously evil regimes and evil cultural practices. For example it becomes impossible to criticize the Nazis. If Nazi culture says that genocide is right, then, for Nazi Germany, genocide is right. It was just their culture, after all. But we know that we can and should condemn such regimes and practices. There is also the criticism put forward by Objectivists who believe in moral development, where sometimes we have to go against the popular view, we need to be able to compare different societies. For example surely the German society now is much better than how it was like with all the racism involved when Hitler was in power. Objectivists believe that societies are a hierarchy where some are in fact better than others whereas cultural relativism believes in breadth where all societies are equal, but surely their tolerance goes too far? If cultural relativism is true, then internal cultural reform is disabled. What the culture says is right is right, so it’s not possible for one’s culture to be mistaken let alone reformed. Yes, one can critique acts according to cultural standards, but it’s not possible to criticize one’s own cultural standards. However they do arise for example Jesus, Gandhi and Martin Luther King, they were all trying to apply another standard for example Martin Luther King was trying to apply the standard of equality. The existence of cultural reformers is a fact, and this fact counts against cultural relativism. Cultural relativism also self-refutes. If CR is true, it allows for the possibility of a society having a non-relative or absolute morality. That is, on cultural relativism a society could hold that cultural relativism is false, and they would say that this morality is true. So, if cultural relativism, then it is also not true. This is a serious logical problem. There is also the problem of which culture? The one you’re born into or the one you presently occupy? When asking someone what cultural groups they belong in they will struggle as they have loads, for example being a student, a Muslim etc. Now let’s look at moral subjectivism. According to moral subjectivism ethics are merely a matter of individual preference. That is, to say action X is right or good if I like X, and X is wrong or bad if I don’t like X. Depending on our feelings, action X may be right for you but wrong for me. You may not like abortion, but I may be okay with abortion, if my feelings are not as troubled by it as yours are. Morality, then, is basically a matter of taste, and tastes vary. People should choose our own morals and have freedom, not simply just accept our parents, society or religion. They are relative to the individual and so are presented through our personal feelings. Feelings are the main index and guide to show what morals we should follow. However this could result in problems as intra-personal criticism is lost. If moral subjectivism is true, whatever we feel is right is right. In other words, we can never be wrong morally and we cannot criticize ourselves (all we can be is true to our feelings). This does not destroy subjectivism but it serves as a red flag against IR, because our pre-theoretic experience of morality is that we sometimes make moral mistakes, in spite of our feelings. We also cannot criticize others. We can’t truly morally condemn the behaviour of, say, Jack the Ripper clearly liked killing women; the feelings of a person justified their actions. In other words, according to subjectivism: Who are we to judge them? There is also the problem of how are our feeling a reliable guide to right and wrong? Sometimes we can misjudge and feelings can cloud our judgement, for example someone with a bad temper might kill someone by accident due to their anger issues. Also reason can sometimes change our feelings, for example if I am on a diet but I feel like I really want a chocolate ice cream, reasoning about this would convince me not to follow my feelings and opt to eat something healthy instead. In conclusion we have seen the two types of moral elitism. Both are quite sophisticated and a lot more open minded. Surely our feelings mater sometimes when it comes to moral decisions. There cannot be just set moral facts as how would everyone even agree about what they are. When trying to decide what is right and wrong, everyone seems to disagree so surely our feelings and following our own society would lead to our moral decisions. However many problems arise logically from moral elitism as sometimes we cannot choose our own morals instead we are a passive recipient where morals impose themselves on us. Following our society or feelings do not necessarily lead us to what is right or wrong and so it’s reasonable to conclude that individual moral relativism is flawed—logically, factually, and morally as following it will lead to wrong situations where wrong things will be condoned. Therefore moral elitism should be rejected.

According to Crapo Acculturation Essay

According to Crapo, Acculturation is what happens when members of one culture adopt the beliefs and/or behaviors of another group. Our textbook states †Although both societies may change as a result of prolonged contact, the politically or economically less powerful of the two is likely to experience the most dramatic acculturative changes as they adopt the language and certain other cultural traits of the dominant culture† (Crapo, 2013). My heart felt so heavy when watching this 40 minute film. I could not help but feel a rush of emotions and for what those children and their parents went through. As a mother, I could not imagine someone taking my child from me and shipping them away to a boarding school. Those children were tortured, beat, and worked to death, and the girls were even sexually assaulted. Once the children were released they had no self-worth. They felt like they were unable to fit in amongst society, and most importantly with their tribe. See more: The stages of consumer buying decision process essay The film never mentioned the actual reason the American Government decided to acculturate the Native Americans into Western culture. There could be several reasons they chose to do so. The first one that comes to mind is power. They also may have done this to use them for cheap labor. Another possibility as to why the American Government could have acculturated the Native Americans is because they feared what they were capable of. Acculturating others into another culture is justifiable as long as they aren’t being forced to do so against their own will. When someone is forced into acculturating it effects them badly, in a negative way. Also, it is unfair that individuals are punished for acculturating, especially when it was against their own will to begin with. References Crapo, R. H. (2013). Cultural Anthropology. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education. Givens, S. F. (Producer). (2011). Indian school: Stories of survival [Video]. Lincoln Park, MI: American Indian Services, Inc. Retrieved from the Films On Demand database.

Party of Liberals Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Party of Liberals - Essay Example We don't believe in the theory that supporters of abortion should be called anti-life, immoral or unethical. We never advocate killing of human life but only believe in the full fledged form of women's liberation. Termination of pregnancy should not be misunderstood as killing of human life. Our party is strongly of the opinion that any human embryo carried by a pregnant woman up to the medically terminable stage should not be considered life. Even though spermatozoa, ovum, pre-embryo, embryo, fetus, newborn, and infant are different forms of human life, they don't carry the equal value in relation to its meaning (Definition of terms, human life). The issue of abortion has once again come to the fore with the Mayoral elections nearing. You may recall that we have severely condemned the practice of abortion as unethical at our last delegates meeting. We once again reiterate our commitment to stand by the resolution adopted unanimously at that meeting in which we pledged to ban all abortion clinics in our city if our party candidate became the Mayor of the city. We assure you we will go to any extent to protect your traditional rights and cultural aspects on which the society has built up the social and moral fabric over a period. Abortion is equal to killing the innocent and it is unethical and immoral too.

McDonalds and Globalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

McDonalds and Globalization - Essay Example McDonalds is a chain of restaurants working in collaboration to deliver their customers with the best product. It also follows the concepts of globalization. This essay would discuss an ethnographic study in McDonalds as it affirms or refutes the claims made about globalization. Ethnographic Study McDonald’s is one of the biggest fast food restaurant chains around the globe. Franchising is the key success factor behind the international success of McDonald’s. The global strategy of franchising McDonald’s is to involve local people and translate the US brand culture to the local culture and values of products and services offered. The integration of local values and cultural elements into the flexible working environment and structure of McDonald’s, help in developing the standards of the food chain with reference to customer’s loyalty and satisfaction.... McDonald’s values, hence, comprise of strategies which uphold the customers’ values. Their advertisements and marketing campaigns include slogans like ‘our community’, ‘our commitment’ etc. and symbols like a smile, happy and fresh look and so on. The idea of community greatly influences the customers at McDonald’s as this word provides them with a feeling of care and trust. Cleanliness, quality and timeliness are some other key values that were emphasized by the management every now and then. The claim of McDonalds to support charities also make a good impression on the customers, however, the quality and value of food along with comfortable environment of the franchise were the key components of success of the business. The division of labour as I observed comprised of more female staff than male. The reason behind such distribution of labour may be the timings that I chose to work in. The day timings may be more of comfort for the fem ale staff and the night shifts might have more male members than female. Around 14 workers worked at a time excluding the managers who were responsible for the operational and strategic decisions related to the franchise. The jobs were distributed in various categories as per the skills, competence level and qualification of each employee. Cashiers, food packing staff, food making staff, cleaning staff, employees dealing with drive-through customers, cashiers and supervisors were all working to avoid any mishaps and quality compromising act (McDonald's goes ethnic 2010; Whats Eating McDonalds 2009). The customers included different age groups, genders, ethnic classes, social classes and cultural backgrounds. Children were more likely to opt for kids’ meals like happy meals which include toys for the children that

Sustainable Agriculture and Ecology Research Paper

Sustainable Agriculture and Ecology - Research Paper Example When an ecosystem is able to maintain and retain productivity for a long period of time, it can be classified as sustainable. There are numerous defects in the methods by which humans conduct their agricultural activity. They often consider their needs and neglect those of other living organisms. This in turn results in destruction of these organisms which can have an effect on the ecological cycle and result in undesirable outputs from farming. The prolonged effects of such destructive methods of farming also include diminishing of biodiversity. The essence of agriculture is to create products for humans which they can use for food, or for recreational uses in cases of tobacco. Some individuals and countries also depend on agriculture for economic purposes; however this raises the question, if farming is intended to be beneficial and humans rely on the lands for numerous purposes, what is the essence of damaging land that brings a vast amount of benefits to society? While food produ ction in the past century has risen gradually over time, it has adversely affected soil productivity, which will have affects on food availability in the near future. Even though agriculture is a basis for humans well being by providing food, it also resulting in consequences on a wide scale to soil indiscreetly and must be changed to maintain needs of present without compromising food production for future generations. For this reason agricultural scientists have strategized methods by which humans can farm and benefit both themselves and the environment. The term sustainable agriculture was first used by Gordon McClymont, an Australian agricultural scientist. This paper will analyze the biological methods which have been used in sustainable agriculture and illustrate the mechanisms by which they are used. It will also analyze the reasons why implementing such policies is beneficial to society. One major benefit of sustainable agriculture is that it helps preserve and maintain the ecosystem, which despite ignorance of most individuals, has an essential part in many aspects of human life. Some of the major energy sources used by humans have been predicted to run out in the next few decades. Hence, the country will require ecosystems as an energy source and to some extent a financial resource (Day et al., 2009). Ecosystems as an energy source are also beneficial to the quality of air in the environment as they produce less harmful byproducts. The biodiversity in different nations will determine the amount of energy sources, which can in turn result in an improvement the nation’s economy. This situation requires ecologists to further studies into functioning of ecosystems and find ways in which they can be preserved and used as energy sources (Day et al., 2009). Other strategies such as implementing Participatory Learning and Action Research and Systems Ecology for improvement of approaches taken in research have been suggested. This in turn will enable t he formulation of strategies that allow a smooth transition of current agricultural methods into approaches that are more sustainable. The two procedures have similar foundations and hence can be merged and utilized to obtain sustainable agricultural transitions (Eksvard & Rydberg, 2010). The methods can be used to improve the decision making as they analyze human activity from a broader perspective and offer a large scale upon which patterns of human activity are compared. These two

Provide a comprehensive report that will descried the development of Essay

Provide a comprehensive report that will descried the development of design from appraisal to completion and illustrate the prop - Essay Example Client Adviser†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.9 2.4. Project Lead†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.9 2.5. Design Lead†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.9 2.6 Construction Lead†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.9 2.7 Design Brief†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..9-10 3. Design†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.10 3.1. Design Development†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦10 3.2. Types of Designs†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..10 3.2.1. Architectural Design†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..11 3.2.2. Landscape Design†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..12 3.2.3. Structural Design†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦13 3.2.4. Building Services Design†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...14-15 3.3. Concept†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.15-16 3.4. ... Pre-Construction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...18 4.1. Production Information†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..18-19 4.2. Tender Documentation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..19 4.3. Tender Action†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦20 5. Construction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.20 5.1. Mobilization†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦20 5.2. Meetings, Valuation and Inspections†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..21 5.3. Construction to Practical Completion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.21 6. Use (Post Practical Completion)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..22 7. Work Cited†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦23-24 Design Procedures from Appraisal to Completion An architectural design is a collaboration of multiple stages that involves variety of considerations at every step. It’s a piece of art to be built, from the mind to the paper and finally to a physical structure, visible to every eye. The process starts from Appraisal and step by step it completes to the final product. 1. Introduction To integrate structural design and analyze data is an architectural design process according to Tessmann (2008). When a building is to be made a design is thought and then projected, the projection is a process that is as important as the need to make an architectural design. Architecture is

What is the Bottom of the Pyramid approach, and why is it consider Essay

What is the Bottom of the Pyramid approach, and why is it consider controversial - Essay Example In this regard, the poor are seen to be resilient and enterprising in terms of managing their budgets with the meagre income they earn. In essence, the BOP concept has gained prominence out of the consideration of the over 4billion poor around the world who are ignored by multinational corporations, for instance. Consequently, BOP views this group to be significant in terms of influencing trade and growth. The proponents of BOP further suggests that market development targeting the BOP group leads to the development of new entrepreneurs, particularly, at the grass root level. While BOP approach appears controversial, it has opened up opportunities for multinationals to exploit and serve the BOP consumers effectively. For example, the establishment of micro-finance organisations in Kenya, for instance, has helped entrepreneurs in the informal sector to grow their businesses from small to medium sized businesses. While BOP approach has opened up market opportunities, it is considered that targeting the poor can result in wasteful spending of the already meagre income they earn. On the other hand, BOP considers spending by the estimated 4billion poor should be left free to decide how to use their earnings since they are value-conscious consumers. As such, they are the only ones who can determine how to maximise their utility. However, a free market ideology such as the poor’s right to maximise their utility tends to harm the disadvantaged in the society. This is because while the poor also can make choices just like the advantaged in the society, some of the decisions are not thought out properly. This approach is also controversial in the sense that, the poor are affected by numerous social issues and cannot be compared with the upper or middle-class population in terms of making informed choices. This is because a larger percentage of the disadvantaged in the society appears vulnerab le due to lack of proper education. They are also

Providing Treatment to Patients with Chronic Lower Back Pain Assignment

Providing Treatment to Patients with Chronic Lower Back Pain - Assignment Example Following CASP allows the researcher to evaluate if the research question illustrated is elaborated and clear enough or not. After evaluating the research question presented at the beginning of the research paper, it was identified that the research question entailed the generalized view of research aim. Careful analysis of research question indicated that the research would require the collection of data from different sources and rigorous data handling techniques for identifying emerging themes. However, it did not include the impact of patients’ profile and related physiotherapists responses on patient’s behaviour. However, the research aim appeared to display physiotherapists’ behaviour as an independent factor with no effect of other variables such as their own ethnic and social backgrounds on it. The research question usually investigates the importance of the research, earlier work in the same field and need for further exploration. Considering this criter ion, overall research does answer the given questions, however, its relevance to acute diseases and patients’ reactions is difficult to determine. The research question also fails to define how this research fills in the gap left between previous studies and desired level of information available (Haber and Lobiondo-Wood, 2008). On the other hand, there is a significant literary evidence present that defines how believing in what patient says affects the practice of a healthcare professional, the research question needed to define how patients’ input avoids making physiotherapists act like a novice but makes them prone to error caused by informative noise (Clarke and Iphofene, 2005; Jenson et al., 1994). Qualitative research can be defined as "any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of  quantification" (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). In scenarios where data collection involves personal histories and exp lanation of experiences and beliefs, in-depth interviews are more appropriate than any other qualitative method.

Incentive Plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Incentive Plan - Assignment Example During the period 2001-2005 which was considered the worst period for airlines it still made money on each and every year. A key to its success is keeping its planes full by capturing enough flying passengers. However, there is one other key aspect of its success that is rarely talked about and that is its incentive plan for its employees. Southwest Airlines has an outstanding corporate culture that encourages all its employees to render extra services to make flying with them a satisfactory experience. The founder of Southwest Airlines, Mr. Herb Kelleher, attributes the airline’s success to its unique culture that is intangible and hard to imitate by its competitors. It is this spirit of competitiveness that has propelled the airline forward to continuous profits over the years. In this regard, the airline adopts the total rewards style of management that recognizes employee performance (Jenses, McMullen & Stark, 2007, p. 61). The management uses incentive plans so that it gets employee buy-in and total commitment to its corporate objectives. The purpose of the program is to attract and retain top talent. Southwest Airlines has one of the longest hiring policies that lasts up to about six weeks through a series of tests and interviews to make sure that prospective employees fit into its fun culture termed as â€Å"LUV† as hiring managers emphasize work attitudes more than work skills. Once hired, employees are expected to help keep costs down so the airline will remain profitable despite its low fares. A reason why Southwest is profitable is because its employees are very productive, using a ratio of passengers per employee (Southwest: 2,400:1, United: 1,175:1 & Continental: 1,125:1). All employees of Southwest Airlines are eligible for its incentive plan which is profit-sharing. In fact, the firm implemented the first

Anecdotal Stories of Feedback and Feedforward Coaching Techniques Assignment

Anecdotal Stories of Feedback and Feedforward Coaching Techniques - Assignment Example This includes illustrations of the adverse effects of not setting the temperatures to the required or standard levels. From this scenario, the protagonist had the opportunity of planning for the future of the election. This includes formulation of measures that needs to be taken in order to ensure that suspicious ballot papers are not delivered during the day of election. Further, the protagonist had a chance of attaining success in hand recount of the election process. Moreover, the protagonist was fully focused on the attainment of better results during the day of election. Thus, a solution for any form of suspicious ballots was developed to ensure that the entire process is not characterized of illegalities (Roeden et al., 2012, p. 590). From experience, the coaching process could have been improved by active listening and the adoption of literal techniques, which ensures that business success is attained at all times. Such entails demonstration of how to identify a real and suspicious

Sociology & Ireland Essay Example for Free

Sociology Ireland Essay In Ireland, ones position in the social class hierarchy tremendously affects their life chances. The probability of one being able to access opportunities that would increase their quality of life is determined by their social status. The opportunities which are required for one to improve their quality of life include food, healthcare, a good education; shelter and clothing all require one to be in a good financial position in order for them to be accessed. Ones quality of life however does not just mean having access to the mentioned societal resources, it also involves one having the ability to purchase and goods or procures them, having a stable income through employments where employment refers to one having a career of their choice that gives them satisfaction (Bilton et al, 2002). Good quality of life implies that one is able to satisfy all their needs and those of their families comfortably. Other aspects of quality life are not being vulnerable to crime, being mentally and physically healthy and elimination chances of poverty in ones life. In Ireland and the world as a whole, life chances of individual’s are basically affected by their position in the social class hierarchy. The social hierarchies can either be in terms of politics or wealth. Either way the effect on one to get access to the mentioned opportunities that improve quality of life is the same. Individuals at the top of these hierarchies have the capability of getting a good education and access to good healthcare services. This implies that they are able to remain healthy and pursue their careers as they have all the required resources at their deposit. Ireland is characterized by high levels of youth unemployment (Tovey Share, 2003). Individuals ranked high in the social hierarchy however have no problems with unemployment cases. This is attributed to the fact that they always have influence that is either political or financial. They use this influence to get jobs for themselves or for their f families in almost any field of profession they choose to. The high rates of unemployment worldwide and especially in third world countries are sometimes due to lack of adequate education, individuals ranked high in social class hierarchy however do not experience such problems as they have access and can afford all the education they would wish to have. Ireland is also characterized by cases of psychological distress among most of the middle and low class individuals as they find it hard to get employment in spite of their education (Tovey Share, 2003). Employment in Ireland has been greatly politicised making it possible only for those who have influence to be able to get employment for themselves or family. The lack of control over employment by those ranked low in the social hierarchy has caused them to develop stress as they are not able to meet their needs. This has increased levels of poverty in the country amongst individuals occupying the middle and low positions of the social hierarchy. In Ireland, ones chance of life depend ion the connections they have with those ranked high in the social hierarchy, their family wealth, land or business, and if one is employed. In the event that one has none of the above then they have no chances of improving their quality of life. Ones position in the social hierarchy also affects chances of life globally. This is evident from the status of citizens in different countries. Countries that are wealthy are more developed and have their citizens leading better quality of life as they access to education, healthcare, shelter and food (Bilton et al. , 2002). There also are more employment opportunities in these countries as compared to the poor ones. Third world countries which are not as wealthy as the developed countries however are characterized by their citizens living low quality of life. Evidence is from the fact that individuals from these countries have no access to good education and healthcare. These countries are also characterized by cases of starvation, lack of employment opportunities, poor shelter and high rates of crime. The fact that they are low in the global social hierarchy does make it impossible for their citizens to improve their quality of life. It can therefore be concluded that one’s position in the social hierarchy heavily determines their life chances as the probability of them accessing the opportunities that improve the quality of life if they is greatly affected by their social status. The higher their position in the hierarchy the easier it is to access the opportunities. Word count: 750 References Bilton, T. et al (2002). Introductory Sociology, 4th edition. London: Palgrave

Reasons for Customer Service Policies

Reasons for Customer Service Policies Customer service is defined by (wiseGEEK. 2017) as the act of providing customers with helpful and positive experience, before after and during purchasing something, others like Staff, I. (2017) said that customer service is the process of ensuring customer satisfaction, anyway we look at it customer service focus on customer satisfaction. This report is based on customer service at Secrets resorts and spas in Montego Bay, where the researcher is a manager and the job description is the promoting of a customer-focused culture and to train and develop staff to provide quality customer service. This report will be in the four-paragraph format and I will discuss the reasons for using customer service policies in this Organization and the importance of having customer service policies in the organization. Research findings: Reasons for customer service policies: Gives a stable competitor advantage. Promotes a good working environment. Increase cost efficiency. (prezi.com, 2017) The importance of having customer service policies in the organization: Make or break a reputation. Customers will pay more for better customer service. Customer service has a big impact. (Desk.com, 2017). In an organization, customer service is the backbone of how the business survives and this is the customer expectation of a business, good customer service and exceeding expectation (Nimetz,2017). Implementing customer service policies so that employees and employers alike will be on the same track as to how the customer service policies work in that organization, there are some reasons as to why customer service policies should be implemented theses are as follows. Customer services policies give a stable competitor advantage, this means that the competitor is selling the same service or product at the same price or maybe in the same location, what would make the difference is the customer service, this is what keeps the customer coming back. customer service policies also promote a good working environment to do this, employers have to motivate staff so that they can provide a good working environment for others and show that they are positive about the company customer service and doing all of this will increase cost efficiency by rising customer retention which will improve profits and in return customers will tell others of the great customer service they receive hence promoting the business (prezi.com, 2017). Conclusion Customer service is very important in the hospitality industry and business overall as customers spend money where they feel valued so implementing policies so that everyone can be on the same page and deliver impeccable customer service is a great idea (Williams, 2017). Customer service policies make or break a reputation, in this modern world where technology is at the tap of the finger and different reviews can be posted right there and then. People are more prompt to post bad reviews and these reviews are what other people view to see if that organization is for them (Desk.com, 2017). It is a fact that customers will pay more if the customer service is much better than the competition that is selling the same product or service.desk.com 2017 states that Surveys have shown that 86 % of consumers would pay more for a better customer experience. People will always pay more if they think that they are getting a value for money which includes premiums experiences, early and better fea ture of whatever service they are purchasing (Desk.com, 2017). The essential point is that customer service has a great impact on the organization, it is a lot cheaper to keep your existing customer than to get new ones, with the cost of advertising and promotion.desk.com, 2017 said that The U.S. Small Business Administration claims 68% of customers leave because theyre upset with the treatment theyve received, this cost business a lot of money trying to build back their reputation and get back customers (Desk.com, 2017).

Effect of Communication in on Collaborative Working

Effect of Communication in on Collaborative Working Discuss how communication within an inter-professional team could affect collaborative working Introduction This assignment will discuss how communication within an inter-professional team could affect collaborative working. It will focus on effective communication and understanding other professional roles. It will also examine collaborative working in a team and the barriers that can affect inter- professional team. According to Curtis, Tzannes and Rudge (2011) communication is the art of imparting a message, idea or information between two or more people and is a two way process of transferring information from a source (sender) to a destination (receiver) without the information becoming scrambled on its way so that the exact meaning is understood (Clemow, 2010). A failure to ensure effective communication may adversely affect clinical practice due to increased staff frustration causing undue anxiety and apprehension to patients. (Pincock, 2004) maintains that poor communication by health service staff is a significant cause of complaints brought against the National Health Services (NHS) and clearly shows the importance of achieving effective communication at all times. The Morecambe Bay Report (2015), reported poor working relationships between midwives, obstetricians and paediatricians, which caused major organisational failures and substandard care. (Cheung et al, 2010) stressed inter-professional communication failures are known to be the root cause of adverse events. The increase of effective communication will support government policies such as The Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF, 2013) and the NHS Outcomes 2013/14, which have been produced to improve patient care through meeting the outcomes of the five key domains, which is a legal requirement of the Care Quality Commission (CQC, 2011). Collaboration between healthcare providers is necessary in any healthcare setting, since there is no single profession which can meet all patient’s needs. Consequently, good quality care depends upon professionals working collaboratively in inter-professional teams. In order to improve the quality of patient care and ensure that the goals of care are being achieved, many settings are using the collaborative care delivery model. The collaborative approach involves teams of health professionals working together to provide more coordinated and comprehensive care to clients (Kearney, 2008). According to Day (2006) collaboration in health care settings involves professionals assuming complementary roles and co-operatively working together, sharing responsibility for problem-solving and making-decisions. Collaboration between health care professionals can increase team member’s awareness of different types of knowledge and skills. Berry (2007) affirms that inter-professional education is a collaborative approach to develop students as future inter-professional team members. The IPE module has given individual students an insight into other students chosen professions and the importance of communication between them. Bronstein (2003) discovered the diverse cultures, norms and languages of each profession make the process of interdisciplinary collaboration resemble the bringing together of inhabitants from different backgrounds. The Morecambe Bay Report (2015) also emphasised the cultural differences between the inter-professional team which led to dysfunctional and serious failures of clinical care. According to Kerridge (2002) culture influences all aspects of our lives, it therefore influences our unconscious perception of others. These cultural differences brings with it many challenges to inter-professional working. MacDonald et al (2010) recognised the ability of a professional to learn about other professional roles leads to a broadening and an enrichment of the knowledge required to collaborate with other team members in providing effective healthcare. Inter-professional team work allows healthcare professionals to identify unique differences and to understand the roles and contributions of other members (Lee, 2011). As members of an inter-professional healthcare team, it is imperative that the basis of our different knowledge and skills set be acknowledged and understood. As an inter-professional we must understand what other healthcare professional do, how to access their services and understand the teams goals and needs from their perspective. For instance, in collaborative partners working to achieve quality care we must find ways for healthcare professionals to become good collaborators and competent team members (MacDonald et al, 2010). Working with different professionals however can be very challenging because each inter-professional has a particular approach to patients care for example, a doctor might decide to treat a cancer patient by using chemotherapy even though, there is a small chance of success and the treatment has significant side effects. The nurse on the other hand might feel like the level of pain from the side effect is too much that treatment should not continue. These different in views should be recognised and inter professionals must share their views, justify treatment approaches, and most importantly involve the patient. The success of collaborative working relies on sharing patient concerns as well as professional perspectives, values and beliefs (Cook, Gerrish Clerk, 2007). McWilliams et al (2010) suggest that inter-professional working is very challenging in the workplace, and it is not an easy concept for healthcare professionals to adopt. He argued that inter-professional working is not being delivered to patients, due to communication misunderstanding of information regarding collaborative working. It has been suggested that this is due to the lack of support and training from managers and that managers should involve staff in changes within practice (Dunsford, 2009). However, challenges in inter-professional collaboration such as professional hierarchy can prevent an inter-professional work system from achieving it goals in improving quality of care (Reeves et al, 2009).Traumacentrum (2009) also considered the design of the care system to be responsible for communication issues. Understanding the design of the care system can therefore be a first step towards gaining insight into the root causes of communication failures (Clemow, 2010). A common barrier to effective communication and collaboration is hierarchy between professionals (Berry, 2007). Deutschlander (2009) concur that communication failures in an inter-professional setting arise from vertical hierarchical differences, concerns with upward influence, role and power conflict, and ambiguity. Communication is likely to be distorted or withheld in situations where there are hierarchical differences between communicators (Hornby Atkins, 2000). Nursing and Midwifery Council’s Code of Professional Practice (NMC, 2015) stated that nurses must engage and communicate with a wide range of professionals to ensure that the patient receives quality care. (Gerard,2002) states that communication is an essential part of health care planning and delivery, no matter which area or discipline one happens to work in, as healthcare delivery involves working with people. Verbal communication is used to convey feelings, ideas and emotions and integral within verbal communication is the process of effective or active listening (Barret, Sellman Thomas 2005). Non-verbal communication conveys how we communicate both unconsciously and consciously which includes body language, facial expressions, posture, eye contact and touch (Leathard, 2003). Written communication can take various forms such as documents, patient care plans, prescription charts, letters and emails (Drake, 2007). In regard to verbal communication, a clear explanation of procedures should be given to the patient in terms that they can understand taking into account age, ethnicity and level of understanding. (Adler Rodman, 2009) suggests that professionals can often be poor listeners, as they are too busy to listen properly and jump ahead to reach their own conclusions and appear impatient and high handed as they already have a fixed idea of what they intend to do. The use of active listening techniques such as open posture and questions enhance a practitioner’s ability to accurately assess the information needs of a patient, by creating and encouraging an atmosphere in which the patient feels free to express their needs (Leathard, 2003). Day (2006) states that a vital method of communication between the inter-professional team is through the patient’s records. Good record keeping should be accurate and is essential for professional practice. Most patient records are handwritten and this sometimes presented barriers because some professionals used meaningless phrases, abbreviations and jargon which are difficult to comprehend. Booker (2005) acknowledges that the use of jargon is a way of making professional status known, however, Cheng et al (2011) points out that patients have a right to view their records and it should be written in a way that they can understand. Inter- professional caregivers are supposed to be communicators, especially when documenting patient information. If what is documented does not communicate, then the healthcare giver has failed in his or her profession and legal duty (Hornby Atkins, 2000). The Morecambe Bay Report (2015) stated that lack of openness and effective communication was a key contributor in the care received by patients, where a patient chart had gone missing, before it could be used as evidence in an investigation. If previous documentation is not properly documented or incomplete, other members of the team would find it difficult making good decisions based on the information available (Tummey, 2005). There are situations where nurses and other professionals work effectively together. The multidisciplinary team work well in long term care situations, because it is virtually impossible to tease apart the ever- changing social and healthcare needs of dependent individual and their family. When it comes to recommending patients to the right support system for example referral to social workers, the doctors and nurses discuss the patient’s condition before deciding their next line of action (Warren, 2007). A further barrier to effective verbal communication within an inter-professional team may be found within styles of speech. Speech that is heavily accented, containing technical and medical jargon or which is spoken too quickly may present communication barriers for the inter-professional team and patients, when caring for patients with hearing, learning, or language difficulties, when English may not be a person’s first language, effective communication is essential. (Yukl, 2010). Communication is fundamental in providing good nursing care and collaborative working with the modern healthcare environment. The NHS England Strategy (2014) The NHS five years forward view require healthcare professionals to consider their possible future, the choices faced, and how the services need to change, for a more engaged relationship with patients and communities, so that wellbeing is promoted and ill-health prevented. In order that patient centred care is provided inter-professionals will need to utilise effective communication skills and build upon existing communication skills and knowledge, by increasing awareness of the many barriers to communication that exist within the inter-professional team ( Pogue,2007). In conclusion, this assignment has discuss on how effective communication can hinder and impact on collaborative working. It also recognised how poor communication can lead to catastrophic result among inter-professional team. Effective communication can lead to positive outcomes, such as improving information flow, more effective involvement and improved safety, and improved collaborative working morale and service user’s experience (Day, 2006). Excellent communication and information given is essential to patient care. The more inter-professional team considers the significance of communication, the more their method towards team collaboration will be influenced positively and better would be the results. REFERENCES LIST Adler,B.R. Rodman, G. (2009). Understanding Human Communication. Oxford:Oxford University Press. Barrett. G. Sellman. D. Thomas. J. (2005). Interprofessional working in health and social care: Professional perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Berry, D. (2007). Health Communication. Theory and Practice. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Bronstein, L. R. (2003). A Model for Interdisciplinary Collaboration. Social Work, 48(3), 297-306. Brooker, C. Nicol, M. (2005). Nursing adults: The practice of caring. London: Elsevier. Care Quality Commission. (2011). Promoting patient safety. Retrieved 18/3/2015from, http://www.cqc.org.uk/public/reports-surveys-and-reviews/reports/mental health- act-annual-report-2010/11/promoting-patient Cheung, D.S., Kelly, J.J., Beach, C., Berkeley, R.P., Betterment, R.A., Broida, R.I., Dalsey, W.C., et al. (2010). Improving handoffs in the emergency department. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 55(1) 171–180. Clemow, R. (2010) Nursing and Collaborative Practice, 2nd edition. Exeter: Learning Matters LTD. Cook. G. Gerrish K. Clarke. C. (2001). Decision making in teams: issues arising from two UK evaluations. Journal of Interprofessional Care. Vol. 15(4), 141-51. Curtis, K., Tzannes, A., Rudge, T. (2011). How to talk to doctors –A guide for effective communication. International Nursing Review, 58(6), 13–20. Day, J. (2006) Interprofessional Working. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. Deutschlander, S. (2009). Role understanding and effective communication as core competencies for collaborative practice. Journal of Interprofessional Care, 23(3), 41–51. Dunsford, J. (2009). Structured communication: Improving patient safety with SBAR. Nursing for Women’s Health, 13(4), 384–390 England, NHS, (2014) Five Year Forward View. Community Practitioner. Ethics for Nurses and Midwives. London: NMC. Gerard, K. (2002). Interprofessional working: opportunities and challenges. Nursing Standard. Vol. 17 (6). 33-35. Headrick, L., A., Wilcock, P. M. Batalden, P. B. (1998). Interprofessional Working and Continued medical Education. British Medical Journal, 316(7133), 771-774. Hornby, S. and Atkins, J. (2000) Collaborative Care: Inter-professional, Interagency and Interpersonal, 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell Science. Kearney, A. (2008). Facilitating interprofessional education and practice. The Canadian Nurse, 104(3), 22-6. Retrieved March 21, 2015, from ProQuest Health and Medical Complete. Kerridge, J. (2012). Leading change 1: identifying the issue. Nursing Times, 4(108), 12-15 Leathard. A. (2003). Interprofessional collaboration: From policy to practice in health and social care. Hove: Brunner-Routledge. Lee, V. S. (2012). What is inquiryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ guided learning? New directions for teaching andlearning, 2012(129), 5-14. MacDonald, M., Bally, J., Ferguson, L., Murray, B., Fowler-Kerry, S., Anonson, J. (2010). Knowledge of the professional role of others: a key interprofessional competency. Nurse Education in Practice, 10(4), 238-242. Mc Williams, R., Holt, J., Coates, C., Cotterill, D., Eastburn, S., Laxton, J., Mistry, H., Young, C. (2010). Identifying common competences in health and social care: An example of multi-institutional and inter-professional working. Nurse Education Today, 30(3), 264-270. Nursing and Midwifery Council. (2015) The Code: Standards OF Conduct, performance and Pincock, S. (2004). Poor Communication Lies at the heart of NHS complaints. [Electronic version], British Medical Journal 328 (430), 10. Pogue, P. (2007). The nurse practitioner role: Into the future. Canadian Journal of Nursing Leadership, 20(2), 34–38. The Care Quality Commission (CQC). (2015) University Hospital of Morecambe Bay NHS, Foundation Trust. London. Traumacentrum Limburg. (2009). Failure mode and effects analysis CVA, Myocardia infarct, Heuptrauma, Obstetric, Psychiatric. Maastricht: Traumacentrum Limburg Tummey, R. (Ed.) (2005) Planning Care in Mental Health Nursing. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Warren, J. (2007) Service User and Carer Participation in Social Work. Exeter: Learning Matters LTD. Yukl, G. (2010). Leadership in organizations (7th Ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight :: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is the greatest fourteenth century text. It was written by an unknown author between 1375 and 1400. The story begins at Christmas time, and there are many symbolic elements. The Green Knight is a color which symbolizes Christmas. Also, changing seasons and the coming of winter symbolize the passing of life and reminds us that Death is unavoidable. The author also skillfully illustrates human weaknesses in the descriptions of Gawain's temptations. The story tells about adventures of Sir Gawain, who takes the Green Knight's challenge. One year after cutting Green Knight's head off, which did not kill him, Gawain has to travel to find the Green Knight and take his blow in return. He finds a strange castle, and while he awaits there for the final day, his knight's ethical code is put to a test by the host and his wife. In this part, Green Knight, in an unmannerly way, enters the hall where King Arthur and his Knights feast and cleverly gets them committed to take his game without revealing what it is he wants to play. The story In this passage from Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, The Green Knight enters the hall on his horse. King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table are having their feast. They are astounded to see a green knight on a green horse. They don't take any action; instead they stare at the stranger. The Green Knight challenges the king and his companions to take his game. He is arrogant, and he uses their pride to get them committed to his game. He is successful, as the king promises to take the game, although he does not know what it is yet. The Green Knight comes into the hall where King Arthur and his knights feast on a horse, and does not greet anyone. He carries a huge axe with "The Spike of green steel" (Norton 207) and with green engravings. He carries no armor and no other weapons. When he enters, not only he does not greet the people present, but he looks down rudely at them and asks: "Where is the captain of this crowd? Keenly I wish to see that sire with sight, and to himself say my say." The knights of the Green Table are so surprised, they fail to protect their king. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight :: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is the greatest fourteenth century text. It was written by an unknown author between 1375 and 1400. The story begins at Christmas time, and there are many symbolic elements. The Green Knight is a color which symbolizes Christmas. Also, changing seasons and the coming of winter symbolize the passing of life and reminds us that Death is unavoidable. The author also skillfully illustrates human weaknesses in the descriptions of Gawain's temptations. The story tells about adventures of Sir Gawain, who takes the Green Knight's challenge. One year after cutting Green Knight's head off, which did not kill him, Gawain has to travel to find the Green Knight and take his blow in return. He finds a strange castle, and while he awaits there for the final day, his knight's ethical code is put to a test by the host and his wife. In this part, Green Knight, in an unmannerly way, enters the hall where King Arthur and his Knights feast and cleverly gets them committed to take his game without revealing what it is he wants to play. The story In this passage from Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, The Green Knight enters the hall on his horse. King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table are having their feast. They are astounded to see a green knight on a green horse. They don't take any action; instead they stare at the stranger. The Green Knight challenges the king and his companions to take his game. He is arrogant, and he uses their pride to get them committed to his game. He is successful, as the king promises to take the game, although he does not know what it is yet. The Green Knight comes into the hall where King Arthur and his knights feast on a horse, and does not greet anyone. He carries a huge axe with "The Spike of green steel" (Norton 207) and with green engravings. He carries no armor and no other weapons. When he enters, not only he does not greet the people present, but he looks down rudely at them and asks: "Where is the captain of this crowd? Keenly I wish to see that sire with sight, and to himself say my say." The knights of the Green Table are so surprised, they fail to protect their king.

The Link Between Down Syndrome and Alzheimers Disease Essay example --

The Link Between Down Syndrome and Alzheimer's Disease The individuals with Disabilities Education Act states that "all children with disabilities, including mental retardation, be educated to the maximum extent appropriate with students who are not disabled" (2). In an ideal world, society would have no problem following this decree, but the world is less than perfect and, therefore, stigmas are unfortunately attached to those suffering from mental disabilities, especially the mentally retarded. One has to question whether this group of people deserves these stigmas. Having grown up with two severely retarded cousins and, for that matter, a great uncle suffering from Alzheimer's Disease, I often wondered as to what was happening within their brains. It was evident that they were unable to respond to me in a normal fashion, but I challenged whether this was just a veneer. Being a spiritual person and believing the mind to be akin to 'the soul', I always felt it must be separate from the brain. A part of me hoped that their minds were sti ll cognizant even though their brain appeared to have a different physiology and they seemed to be unable to respond to me in a normal fashion. However, upon researching the link present between Down Syndrome and Alzheimer's Disease, I began to question whether my previous beliefs were indeed true. I think the questioning of this raises ethical issues about how we treat the mentally disabled and gives quite an argument for the brain = behavior debate. As more and more adults live longer, age-associated mental disease is becoming more and more of a concern. Present estimations state that soon nearly 10 million Americans will suffer from the disabling disease called Alzheimer's. Alzheimer's s... ... Risk of Down Syndome with Increasing Maternal and Paternal Age, Good Detailed Site http://www.lifesciences.napier.ac.uk/bws/courses/projects/downsynd/home.htm 9)Alzheimer's Disease and People with Mental Retardation, Good Detailed Site http://www.thearc.org/faqs/almr.html 10)Developmental Disabilities and Alzheimer's Disease, Good Detailed Site by The Arc http://www.thearc.org/misc/alzbk.html 11)Epidemiology of Alzheimer Disease in Mental Retardation, Periodicals Index http://www.aamr.org/index.shtml 12)Fact Sheet: Alzheimer's Disease, Family Caregiver Alliance http://www.caregiver.org/factsheets/diagnoses/alzheimers.html 13)Harvard Researchers Link Alzheimer's to Problem With Chromosome Segregation Presenilin Proteins are Found in Cell Structures Involved in Mitosis, Recent Press Release http://www.hms.harvard.edu/news/releases/897alzheimer.html

The Film American Beauty Essay -- Movie Films American Beauty Essays

The Film American Beauty   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In life, everyone must make choices. Choices give an individual the freedom to decide the path which they will follow. In the movie American Beauty, each of the characters has a choice he or she needs to make. The main character, Lester Burnham, is faced with many choices that could either lead to his ultimate happiness or draw him further into his despair. Carolyn Burnham, Lester's wife, is faced with a loveless marriage that exists only because she does not possess the willingness to break the cycle. This cycle involves protecting their daughter by staying married. In reality, children of a marriage such as this are often the biggest victims of this sham. Jane Burnham is Lester and Carolyn's daughter. She is caught between the two of them, and her decision is to tune her parents out. Ricky Fitts, the boy next door, makes his choice of knowing when to cooperate with his father. Ricky's dad, Colonel Fitts, makes his choice of finally admitting of his sexual prefer ence. Angela Hayes, Jane's friend, makes her choice of losing her virginity to Lester. Each character has to learn how to deal with his or her own problems.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lester Burnham is in a state of despair. Lester's dull and monotonous voice introduces the audience to his daily routine of life. At the age of 42 he has become sympathetic to everything. He realizes that his family life is the "pits" as he becomes aware that both his wife and daughter consider him a gigantic loser. He feels they are right about this. He believes he has lost something and that he did not always feel this sedated. Lester's disheartenment is symbolic in the car scene. Lester sits slouched down in the back seat with a look of emptiness while his daughter sits up front next to his wife, who is driving the car. Carolyn drives the car just as she drives the family, especially, Lester. She has evolved into the decision-maker and leader of the Burnham family. Sitting in the backseat, Lester avoids further conflict with his wife, leading him to become an even unhappier and more desperate person.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lester's life at work is no better than his life at home. After fourteen years at a job, that is viewed by Lester as nothing more than being a corporate slave at a media marketing magazine, Lester is asked by an efficiency expert at work to write a memo justifying his position. In Lester's ... ... Health 29 June 2001:11-26. Berardinelli, James. "A Film Review, American Beauty." September 15, 1999. [Online] Available http://movie-reviews.colossus.net/movies/a/american_beauty.html.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  "Drug Statistics." October 2000. [Online] Available http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/briefingbook/page15.htm.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ebert, Roger. "Review, American Beauty." September 14, 2001. [Online] Available http://movie-reviews.colossus.net/movies/a/american_beauty.html "Family Violence Statistics." September 18, 2001. [Online] Available   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.soundvision.com/domesticviolence/statistics.shtml.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  "How to Survive Infidelity." September 14, 2001. [Online] Available http://www.marriagebuilders.com   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  "Marijuana 13551." January 22, 2001. [Online] Available http://www.nida.nih.gov/Infofax/marijuana.html.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  "Nationwide Trends 13567." February 15, 2001. [Online] Available http://www.nida.nih.gov/Infofax/nationtrends.html   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Payne, Robert. "Reel Review, American Beauty." September 14, 2001. [Online] Available http://www.reel.com.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  United States. Department of Health and Human Services. Marijuana: Facts Parents Need to Know. Publication No. 98-4036. November 1998.

Principles of Hypnosis

The Principles of Hypnosis: CONTENTS Dylan Morgan THE BOOK is arranged in three parts: A, B and C. Part A, like the root system of a plant, is a foundation. It brings into mind some of the materials that will be needed for the remainder of the book. These chapters are only loosely connected to each other. Part B, like the stem of a plant, develops the central theme of the book, which is the key processes involved in Hypnotherapy. These chapters are strongly connected and should be read in order. Part C, like the leaves or fruit of a plant, spreads out again.These chapters are all developments from the ideas of Part B, but are not otherwise connected strongly. They can be read in almost any order, and are intended to stimulate thought in a variety of new directions. PART A Introduction. This describes the kind of book you are reading. It is a book which is devoted to presenting a unified theoretical view of the subject. In this way it is new and unique. It does not present any new fac ts, but rather arranges the facts in a new light. It presents a new paradigm for Hypnosis. Chapter 1: Clearing the Ground.Here we make sure that we know what certain key words will mean in this book. The word Hypnosis will refer ONLY to the subject and not to some hypothetical state or condition. Chapter 2: Hypnotic Phenomena. Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy are particular fields of human knowledge. We may delimit such fields of knowledge by their subject matter: the phenomena they deal with. A brief overview of some of the standard phenomena of Hypnosis is given to remind the reader of what the subjects involve. Chapter 3: Introducing Systems.A very important idea which is central to future development is that of systems, and particularly organic systems. This chapter introduces some of the basic properties of systems which will recur throughout the book, primarily their level of activity, and the most basic ways in which they might affect each other. An important shorthand notation is a lso presented. Chapter 4: Other Theoretical Approaches. It is useful then to examine various other theoretical approaches which have been taken to the subject. This overview will deepen the understanding of the newcomer.The range of theories is classified with an eye on the way in which they can be related to particular organic systems. It will be seen that the systems approach gives a way of unifying discussion and analysis of the whole field. The primary conclusion is that previous theoretical models have been based on noticing that Hypnotic techniques change the functioning of one particular system of the mind or body and then extrapolating to the idea that this particular system or change is the key or definitive feature of Hypnosis.Each theory therefore has some truth to teach, but none provides a complete picture. Chapter 5: Interlude – Analogous Processes. In this chapter the reader is reminded of many other organic systems with which he or she is familiar, such as org anisations, ecosystems, economies and families. The purpose is to activate in the mind certain patterns of organised thought; certain dynamic images; a certain organic approach to a subject which is a useful one when we develop the â€Å"Morganic† approach to Hypnotherapy. Chapter 6: A First Order Classification of Subsystems useful in Hypnotherapy.In this chapter we take a rather closer look at the central systems with which we deal in Hypnosis, in order to perform a rough classification. There are those subsystems which interface with the external environment, which can be classified into active, e. g. muscular, vocal; and responsive, e. g. vision, hearing. Then there are those subsystems which deal with the internal environment, e. g. emotions, internalised speech, visualisation and a variety of maintenance and defence systems. Important among this last class is the â€Å"flight or fight† process.This elementary classification is then used to illustrate the principl es along which Hypnotherapy can proceed. Chapter 7: Processes. This brief chapter takes a closer look at the matter of distinguishing processes as opposed to distinguishing structures. It also considers yet another complex system as an example of an organic system: an orchestra. The particular virtue of this example is that it provides us with a concrete image of what we mean by a process of a system: it is akin to the score of an orchestral work.Another very important point made, which is neatly illustrated by this example, is the distinction between the kinematics of a process – how a thing proceeds – and the dynamics – why it proceeds as it does. No amount of analysis of subsystems will in principle enable us fully to understand an organic process by merely analysing its subprocesses: we must also always be aware of the influence of larger systems and processes of which it is in turn a subprocess. Chapter 8: Tests. Anyone familiar with Hypnosis will know many â€Å"tests† of Hypnotic responsiveness.These are used in an attempt to determine how readily a potential subject will respond. The purpose of this chapter is to re-evaluate such tests within a systems framework as follows. The tests remain tests, but tests not of Hypnotic responsiveness but of how readily one system of the brain or body activates another in a given individual. Chapter 9: Inductions. â€Å"Hypnotic inductions† are traditionally thought of as processes that the Hypnotist goes through in order to â€Å"Hypnotise† the Subject.But they are mostly presented with little or no explanation of how they work, or of what is the purpose of their various parts. From a systems point of view it becomes much easier to see what the purpose of an induction is, and examples are given to illustrate this way of thinking. The result is a more precise, flexible and accurate approach to this area within the field of Hypnotherapy. PART B This central part of the book t akes a very close look at the process of Hypnotherapy, in more or less the order that it arises in real life, starting with the initial diagnosis.In doing this the value of the systems approach and the notation we have outlined in Part A become more apparent and develop real strength, throwing further light on how a variety of Hypnotic phenomena are produced. Chapter 10: The Process of Hypnotherapy. Stage 1: Elements of Diagnosis. This chapter starts to look at the process of diagnosis by looking at the presented symptom. It then describes the first step in a process of diagnosis which involves looking at precursors and resultants of the presented symptom. A precursor is a system, a change in the activity of which produces the symptom.A resultant is a system whose activity changes as a direct result of the symptom. In this way we build up a clear picture of the dynamics of the problem. The typical picture is a chain of systems each affecting the next, with the problem symptom somewh ere in the middle. A situation of considerable importance arises if the chain forms a loop, colloquially termed a vicious circle. Chapter 11: Feedback Loops – an Introduction. The notion of a vicious circle is part of a more general set of ideas which deal with what are known as feedback loops. These are of enormous importance in organic systems, and this chapter outlines their principles.We distinguish positive feedback loops from negative feedback loops, and increasing from decreasing feedback loops. Any of these can at times create the problem we are supposed to be resolving, or prevent a change we want to make, or, on the other hand, be the means by which we are removing a problem or ensuring that the changes we make are permanent. Chapter 12: The Process of Hypnotherapy. Stage 2: Consequences of Symptom Reduction. The next step in diagnosis involves looking at the question of what would happen if the problem symptom were to be removed.The importance of this comes from th e observation that the problem may well only remain in existence because of a negative feedback loop which ensures that any reduction in the problem leads to consequences which start it up again. It is essential in successful therapy that such situations be recognised. Chapter 13: Making Changes in Hypnosis. As a preliminary to deciding what to do to change things for the better this very important chapter builds on the analysis of cybernetic processes to emphasise a general and very central technique of Hypnotherapy.We start from the general principle that amplification is involved and the observation that organic systems are typically provided with a multitude of increasing positive feedback loops which act precisely like amplifiers. Many Hypnotic phenomena are shown to centre around the principle of deliberately creating and activating such loops. As a secondary but still important principle we note that in many other cases a pre-existent loop of this nature is present but is hel d in check by the activity of another system.In such cases it is enough to inactivate the controlling system in order to tap into the activating power of the loop. But even then the inactivation is likely to be achievable by means of establishing a positive feedback loop. Chapter 14: The Process of Hypnotherapy. Stage 3: Planning a Change. In this chapter attention is focused on the process of deciding a strategy in Hypnotherapy for reducing the problem symptom. There is no one way of tackling a given symptom, or helping a given person. But there is a strategy which has a good chance of producing a short list of the most effective and efficient ways.Chapter 15: Reinforcing Changes. In the context of Hypnotherapy it is important to ensure that changes to the Client are reinforced by factors in the environment. This amounts to ensuring that there will be an increasing positive feedback loop to make the change grow in strength. This is contrasted with a form of therapy in which any new behaviour is reinforced only by the therapist, which can result in undue dependence. The principle is that â€Å"Life must provide the reinforcer†. PART C In this third part of the book each chapter is relatively independent.Each takes up one particular aspect of our subject and looks at it from the perspective of the principles that have been developed. Chapter 16: Dynamic Rebound and Paired Systems. In this chapter we focus on a particular and very important principle of organic systems. This is the fact that to maintain homeostasis – a reasonable equilibrium – there evolve pairs of systems which act in opposite directions to maintain any important parameter within range. If one increases, then the other decreases. This is coupled to the principle that if we attempt to over-ride a system it will tend, over a few cycles, to strengthen.We may then often find that the most effective strategy in dealing with a problem is analogous to vaccination: we act in the sh ort term to produce the very thing which we are trying to prevent in the long term, with the aim of strengthening a natural system which will produce the required change. The converse of this is that a direct attempt to change a system is more analogous to drug therapy: it can be very effective in the short term, but in the long term weakens a natural system which would do the same job, thus creating potential long-term problems.Chapter 17: Dissociation. This chapter draws attention to the general point that in any complex system there are subsystems which may or may not affect each other. If two have no direct effect on each other they may be called totally dissociated. If the effect is only one way we may call it a partial dissociation. The dissociation may also be weak or strong – in the latter case there will be some third or higher system which acts so as to prevent the strongly dissociated systems from affecting each other.Examples are given of these phenomena and an in teresting point is made regarding the difference in emphasis between Hypnotists, who tend to create dissociation, and Hypnotherapists, who tend to eliminate it. Chapter 18: Indirect Questions. The asking of appropriate questions is a theme which runs through the whole book. One particular aspect of this is asking questions of the Client. Problems can arise when we want to know things about subsystems of which there is no conscious awareness. This chapter deals with some of the techniques specific to Hypnotherapy which deal with such a situation.In brief they involve bypassing the verbal system and connecting the system of interest to some other system (using the characteristic Hypnotic techniques of eliminating distractions, amplifying responses by means of feedback loops, etc. ). The alternative systems are usually the visual imagination or the motor or emotional systems. Examples are given to illustrate this. Chapter 19: Experimental Hypnotherapy. This chapter underlines the value of the very clear theoretical structure presented in this book when it comes to making meaningful experiments.Since it has proved impossible to find an agreed objective answer to the question, â€Å"When is a person Hypnotised? † the experimentalist who wishes to be scientific is working on shaky foundations. Within our framework, however, the basic question as to whether a particular system is active or not is much more tractable and answerable. It should then be possible to build a strong experimental structure on the basis of clearly defined experiments on the component parts of Hypnotic procedures. Chapter 20: Family Therapy.Family therapy is an area of human psychology which has already incorporated to some extent a systems way of thinking. The background to this is presented for the sake of its similarities to our systematic approach to Hypnotherapy. Some examples are used to illustrate the fact that the approach and notation developed in earlier chapters continue to b e precisely as valuable when the primary system is a family and not an individual. The general point is made that the practice of a therapist is characterised by the choice of systems he recognises as important.The different fields of family therapy are associated with different assumptions as to the subsystems of importance. The same holds for Hypnotherapists: the subsystems they regard as important characterise and at times limit them. Chapter 21: Schools of Psychotherapy. Different schools of psychotherapy tend to focus their attention on different subsystems of the human mind, and apply different techniques to them. This chapter very briefly outlines some of the major approaches in order to provide an idea of the context of Hypnotherapy.It is concluded that Hypnotherapy, in the sense of this book, is broader than most forms of psychotherapy as it may deal with systems of many kinds and all levels from the comparatively simple reflexes of the nervous system up to social systems. It involves a prescriptive diagnostic process, a crisp theoretical framework, a sense of the dynamics of feedback systems and a wide variety of procedures to change them. Chapter 22: Activity. This chapter presents a precise scientific definition of the key notion of activity which has run through this book.The activity of a system is defined as the rate at which it increases the entropy of the universe – a quantity which is in principle always measurable or calculable. It also has the property of always being positive. It is approximately proportional to the power output of the system in watts. If we wish to extrapolate the notion of activity to socio-economic systems (which are also organic) then a more useful measure will be the rate at which money is spent: ? /sec. Chapter 23: Analogies and Metaphors The use of analogies or metaphors in Hypnotherapy is common and important.In this chapter their use is related to the general principles running through the book. The key ide a is that the principles allow us to uncover the abstract dynamic pattern of the problem and solution. The same abstract pattern may be embodied in many particular forms, each of which thereby provides an analogy for all the others. In helping a Client we generate an analogy which draws on his or her experience, and present the change that is required to resolve the problem in terms of the related change in the analogy.These ideas also throw some further light onto the nature of the theory of this book: although many analogies have been presented for Hypnotic phenomena, their purpose is to enable the reader to grasp the general or abstract principles which are involved in both Hypnosis and the other fields from which the examples or analogies are drawn. Chapter 24: Consciousness. This brief chapter gives an outline of an approach to the very difficult question of consciousness.The essence of the approach is the theme, which runs through this book, of the twin perspective on any syst em both as being part of a larger system or systems and also as containing subsystems. The point is made that when we ask of a system a question based on â€Å"How? â€Å", then we are looking for an answer in terms of its subsystems. On the other hand when we ask a question based on â€Å"What? † we are looking for answers in terms of its supersystem or supersystems. Anything like a full understanding of a system can only be obtained by answering both the â€Å"How? † and the â€Å"What? † questions.Applying these principles to human consciousness, which is taken to involve the highest order of systems within the individual brain, leads inevitably to the conclusion that although research has gone a long (though not the whole) way towards answering the â€Å"How? † questions, the answers to the â€Å"What? † questions must lie in a higher system, which must at least include very many other human beings. The fact that traditionally the â€Å"What ? † questions regarding human life have been answered in terms of higher systems than the individual human being is therefore accepted to be the right approach in principle.Chapter 25: Mathematics. This brief chapter points towards the way in which the analysis of Hypnotic phenomena promoted in the body of the book could be developed in such a way that it would connect up with the large existing body of mathematical theory of cybernetic and biological systems. A single very small example of mathematical modelling is given in the hope that even the non-mathematician may get an idea of the potential of such an approach. CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY Home | Principles | Top of page PART A The Principles of Hypnosis: INTRODUCTIONThis describes the kind of book you are reading. It is a book which is devoted to presenting a unified theoretical view of the subject. In this way it is new and unique. It does not present any new facts, but rather arranges the facts in a new light. It presents a new paradigm for Hypnosis. WHAT KIND of book is this? This question is an important one. In order to get the best out of a book we need to approach it with the right mind-set. This book is a paradigm-changing book: it aims to present a fresh way of looking at the field of Hypnotherapy.It was in 1962 that Kuhn introduced the notion of a paradigm shift to describe a process that has happened in many fields of science at many times. The second edition of his book will be found in the list of References under Kuhn (1970)Bib. It concerns a fundamental change in the way in which the phenomena of the field are viewed, and consequently in the way things are done. In Kuhn's view such a change has the nature of a revolution. His book itself introduced a paradigm shift in the field of the theory of scientific ideas.A good survey of his ideas and of those of others who do not agree with him is given by Casti (1989)Bib. Since this book presents a paradigm shift it is a book of ideas. It will therefore stand or fall on the success of these ideas. They will be a success if they help others to make sense of Hypnotherapy. We may contrast this with some books which it is NOT. It is NOT a book which claims to present any new FACTS about Hypnosis. If it were it would contain a number of detailed accounts of specific new experiments and their results: it does not. It is NOT a compendium or encyclopaedia of known facts about Hypnotherapy.If it were, it would contain thousands of references to the work of thousands of other workers and what they have discovered: it does not. It would also be a great deal thicker. It is NOT a history. If it were it would deal exclusively with ideas and practices from the past. It does not. It is NOT a handbook of techniques. Although various techniques will be mentioned, they are there only to illustrate and illuminate the theory. A handbook would aim to give extensive lists of techniques. This does not. It is NOT a â€Å"Teach yourself Hypnother apy† book.Although you will learn a lot about Hypnotherapy, this book will not, in itself, qualify you to be a Hypnotherapist. That requires in addition a lot of practical experience and a lot of detailed information that you would need to acquire from the kinds of books mentioned above. It is NOT one of those Elixir of Life books which claims to have found some totally new and remarkably simple method of solving all human ills. It is none of those things. It IS a book which aims to change in a fundamental and useful way the manner in which we think about the subjects of Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy.Books of this nature are rare – and they are exciting. Not only does it give a new perspective, it generates new insights into the processes used. Furthermore it leads to a clear and original description of the process of diagnosis in Hypnotherapy – something which is notably absent in other books on the subject. The association of Hypnosis with therapy is not new. By th at name it was first used by the Scottish doctor, James Braid, then practising in Manchester, in the 1840s. Related practices, under other names, were used in healing by Mesmer and his ollowers in the 17th century and by priest and shaman as far back as the dawn of recorded history. Over the centuries many books have been written about Hypnosis in the context of therapy. The common characteristic of all these books is that they deal extensively with HOW to create the many phenomena we associate with Hypnotism but give very little idea of WHY the methods work. There is very little theory. They are therefore of little help when a method does NOT work, which is a matter of some importance to the practitioner of Hypnotherapy. The early days of most sciences are marked by this same feature.Early chemistry consisted of a collection of recipes, â€Å"If you add this to that then the following happens†¦ † There was no real understanding of WHY or HOW it happened. Early medicine was the same. It had a large collection of procedures and treatments, but only vague ideas as to HOW they worked (when they did). In the light of our present understanding, moreover, we can see that the theoretical ideas they did have – such as the Hippocratic idea of Humours – were inadequate and faulty in the extreme, leading for example to quite unnecessary and potentially dangerous bloodletting on a massive scale.When a science has reached a certain degree of maturity, as a result of the accumulated experiences of many workers, there comes a stage in which partial, and hard-won, experiences may coalesce to form one uniform picture which makes sense of a whole field. An example of this was the introduction into chemistry of the atomic theory by Dalton (1808)Bib, which was a big paradigm shift and the foundation of all subsequent understanding in the field.It is the contention of this book that Hypnotherapy has come of age, and that it is now possible to describe in some detail a theoretical framework within which Hypnotic phenomena can be produced and understood in a systematic way. This book is written with three classes of readers in mind. The central class consists of students: people who are learning the skills of Hypnotherapy. There are increasing numbers of these as this form of therapy becomes more popular. They can expect to find this book a unique aid to understanding what it is that they are learning to do.On one side of these are individuals who already have an extensive understanding of Hypnotherapy, whether as practitioners or as experimentalists. For these individuals this book may be seen as a codification of ideas that are floating in the pool of common consciousness of Hypnotherapists in this day and age: it crystallises these ideas; it makes them more definite and clear; it unites them in a common pattern. Some of the ideas presented here have already been published in journals read by professionals and found a ready response .The paradigm shift involved does not involve the shattering of existing ideas for most professionals. It is more a matter of drawing together all that we know and do in a systematic way and then building on that foundation a strong new understanding. On the other side of the centre is the group of intelligent readers who want to know what Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy are all about, though with no intention of using them in person. This will include students of psychology and medicine, but also many of the millions of people who like to know â€Å"how things work†, and in particular â€Å"how people work†.Hypnotherapy is intimately involved with the ways in which people's minds and bodies work: arguably the most fascinating subject for everyone outside their own speciality. With this readership in mind the language has been kept comparatively simple. A minimum level of specialised vocabulary is used, and a minimum amount of prior knowledge assumed. Having said that, it ha s been my experience that the concepts are grasped most readily by men and women who are working at the higher levels of many fields such as management, education or consultancy.They seem naturally to think in terms of systems and processes: an ability that I suppose is correlated with degree of intelligence. It may well be then that a certain level of intelligence is a prerequisite to grasping the ideas in their abstract form. However, I have supplied many concrete examples to minimise this problem. The theoretical framework described here, although proposed as a basis for understanding Hypnotherapy, is in fact rich and powerful enough also to provide a fresh perspective on a very much wider arena of human behaviour, whether individual or in groups such as families or organisations.It is hoped that it will open up new ways of thinking to others as it has to the author. It will seem to outsiders that the Hypnotherapist does not hold a central position in the world of ideas: I certai nly thought so myself at one time. But I have gradually come to realise that in terms of understanding how people work it is a position second to none. This is because it combines the maximum opportunity for observation with the maximum opportunity for making changes and seeing the results. The Hypnotherapist sees people from all ranks of life. People open up and disclose their innermost feelings and houghts to the Hypnotherapist, so that a full picture emerges of the entire course of people's lives. The Hypnotherapist is not restricted to working with people in whom there is a severe mental malfunction as are Psychiatrists for the most part. He or she is instead often working with healthy and typical people who want help with a single problem in an otherwise satisfactory life or to improve their performance in some way. Consequently the Hypnotherapist can form a clear idea of the range of ways that people normally deal with life: there is not the Psychiatrist's exclusive emphasis o n severe malfunction.Compared with many other related fields such as counselling or psychoanalysis, the Hypnotherapist is expected to a far greater degree actively to change things: a variety of things in a variety of people. This seems to me to be of far-reaching importance. The scientific revolution which began around the seventeenth century was a result of men who were not, in the Greek tradition, restricted to contemplation and reflection in the pursuit of truth, but who had hands-on experience.There is nothing like trying to make a change and failing, to drive home the fact that you do not understand what you are doing. When your livelihood depends on making successful changes it concentrates the mind still better. If, on the other hand, it is possible to take an ivory-tower approach and to build a theory on the basis of what has been merely read, then there is little chance of any immediate feedback to prove the theory wrong. Later on in this book we will find much on the impo rtance of feedback loops.In the present context I will observe that improvement in any skill or ability depends on a feedback loop in which execution is followed by an assessment of how successful that execution has been, which is followed by an appropriate modification and further executions. That is how the Wright brothers learned to fly. That is how anyone learns to play golf. That is how babies learn to co-ordinate their limbs. That is how science has grown. The Hypnotherapist is in the position of having immediate feedback, perhaps within minutes, quite usually within an hour and always within days to test how successful he or she has been in effecting a change.As a matter of contrast, many Psychoanalysts work over periods of years with a Client. The feedback is so slow, I wonder it can ever have any effect on practice. Research Psychologists are disciplined to work with a very small area of human psychology; each experiment can take months or years, and can lead only to knowin g a lot about very little. Psychologists who build theories on the results of the work of such painstaking research inevitably spend most of their lives in libraries and laboratories: they have little chance to get any feedback by putting their ideas into any kind of practice.Many counsellors are constrained by present conventions to be non-directive: that is to say they are supposed NOT to make direct changes, but rather to somehow create an environment in which the Clients will make changes for themselves. Since there is so little action, there is limited scope for feedback also. In addition, many such professionals are working in salaried positions: which has two drawbacks.One is that they involve extensive costs in terms of the time that has to be spent on the organisation – the committees, the paperwork, the administration, etc. – which reduces either or both of the time available for original thought and the time spent dealing with clients or patients. The second is that since the salary cheque is only very, very loosely connected with success at helping people as contrasted with making a good impression on the System, there is not the same direct and immediate incentive to improve at the cutting edge of the work.The Professional Hypnotherapist – by which I mean an intelligent man or woman who devotes his or her whole life to the field, not someone who is a professional in some other field like medicine and does a little Hypnosis on the side – is, by contrast, in a perfect position to devote ALL his or her time to studying and changing the functioning of other people with ample and immediate feedback available. This is the optimum position to be in in any field.I, personally, have adopted and then discarded because they failed me in practice, hundreds of different partial theoretical structures before finally evolving that which is presented in this book, which has passed the hard test of day-to-day work and also exposure to m y professional peers. My initial training and doctorate were in Mathematics with a strong leaning to Theoretical Physics. These force you to think clearly and deeply and honestly about the structures and dynamics of things. Ideas must be as crisp as possible: woolliness of thought is a sin.When I plunged into the world of Hypnotherapy, I found none of the precision of thought I was used to, no systematic approach, no theory worthy of the name. I also found my ego very badly hit every time I failed to help someone. Furthermore I had no salary: Clients are not reimbursed by Health Insurance Policies for Hypnotherapy as yet; neither can they get it free on the National Health Service. When Clients are paying with their own money, they require evidence that the service is worth it. And this is even more true in Yorkshire.The fact that if you make no progress then you make no money concentrates the mind wonderfully, I find. If an idea does not work you reject it at once. Those that survi ve and evolve in this tough environment are fit and strong and lean and healthy. I hope you will find these qualities throughout this book. Finally I come to a small matter of how to refer to the approach to Hypnotherapy which has evolved in this way. In my first articles for the European Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, I referred to it as a â€Å"Systems-oriented Paradigm for Hypnotic Phenomena†.This is a bit of a mouthful, and the Journal used, as a more useful label, the phrase, â€Å"the Morgan Proposition†. Neither of these lends itself to the formation of a useful adjective: â€Å"systematic† is a possible one, but this is too general a word. As you read the book, you will find that central to the approach is the notion of the functioning of complex organic systems. An alternative adjective could therefore be â€Å"organic†, but this again is too general. Finally I stumbled on an adjective which is concise, reminds us of this aspect of the theory, is specific and easily memorable: â€Å"Morganic†.So when, from time to time, it is necessary to distinguish between the approach of this book and other approaches I will use this coined word as a convenient shorthand. Home | Contents | Next Chapter CHAPTER 1 Clearing the Ground Here we make sure that we know what certain key words will mean in this book. The word Hypnosis will refer ONLY to the subject and not to some hypothetical state or condition. OUR TOOLS for understanding are ideas and words. To do a good job tools must be clean and clear. This short chapter does some of this necessary preparation.Let us begin with the word â€Å"hypnosis†. It has been used in a number of senses. It is sometimes said that a person is â€Å"in hypnosis†. Or it might be used in a phrase such as â€Å"experimental hypnosis† to mean a field of expertise. In this book the words â€Å"hypnosis† and â€Å"hypnotherapy† will refer ONLY to fields of knowledge and skill. They are in the same class as the words â€Å"chemistry†, â€Å"medicine† (as a discipline), â€Å"physics†, etc. The reasons why this is important will become clearer later. Briefly it is because the other use conjures up a picture of a subject in a unique â€Å"state of hypnosis†.Detailed experiments have failed to establish any way of defining such a state or distinguishing it from other, â€Å"non-hypnotic states†. For the same reason the phrase â€Å"an hypnotic trance† will not be used. On the other hand a field of knowledge is comparatively easy to define. It is characterised by an interest in a certain class of phenomena. The field defined by interest in the weather can be labelled â€Å"meteorology†, of interest in the past, â€Å"history†, in books, â€Å"literature†, in the nerves, â€Å"neurology† and so on. Notice that it is the phenomena that define the subject and not the theories or the pra ctices.For example, the techniques used in chemistry have varied enormously over time. Modern equipment is vastly different from nineteenth century equipment: Bunsen didn't start using his burner until 1855! Chemical theories have also changed enormously over time: Dalton's atomic theory only goes back to the beginning of the nineteenth century. In a similar way both the ideas that people have had about the field of Hypnosis and the methods they have used have changed considerably, but the phenomena of interest have remained relatively fixed.What the Hypnotist is interested in is a certain class of changes in the functioning of the mind and body brought about in a non-physical and naturalistic way. Later on we will list in more detail most of the common such changes, but here we will note a few such things: analgesia – a loss of a sense of pain; amnesia -an induced forgetfulness; involuntary movements induced by suggestion alone; and distortion of the messages of the senses, in which a lemon may be made to taste like an apple, a clearly visible object may not be perceived, or an object may be â€Å"seen† though not present.The Hypnotherapist is more interested in a rather different class of changes, such as recovery of lost memories, removal of old habits or patterns of thought, elimination of tensions, changes in perceptions to bring them more in line with reality, changes in mood and so on: in brief to change things which are perceived as â€Å"problems†. When we say that these changes are to be produced in a non-physical way, it implies that the changes are NOT produced by the application of drugs, electricity, magnetism or other physical agency.To say that the changes are produced in a naturalistic way implies that neither are they produced by some strange or unnatural force, power or phenomenon. Hypnotic phenomena are a result of using the natural modes of functioning of the mind and body, but in focused or particular or unusual ways, to produce the desired changes. It is because we are using only modes of functioning which can exist naturally that no hard line can be drawn between a â€Å"state of hypnosis† and any other â€Å"state† or mode of functioning of a person. For many people this point cannot be emphasised too much.In the uninformed mind there is a simple picture that being â€Å"under hypnosis† is rather like going â€Å"under† an anaesthetic: a sudden and dramatic departure of consciousness. While the stage Hypnotist will at times work (with his better Subjects) to approximate to this state of affairs, it has been found by careful experiment that the same phenomena which can be produced under those conditions can also be produced under conditions where there is no such dramatic change. A related error can be typified by a recent enquiry to me: â€Å"Can Hypnosis be used to improve my memory, so that I could pick up and learn a telephone directory? This is effectively equ ivalent to being able effortlessly to be a chess Master, a scratch golfer, etc. The normal rules of functioning of the mind and body demand that practice, and a lot of it, is necessary to develop such skills. Hypnotic techniques may be used to increase motivation, to reduce distracting thoughts and to optimise the results of practice, but they are always working on natural systems which have their own rules and therefore limitations. You cannot make a silk purse out of a sow's ear.There is a lot of power and potential in Hypnotic techniques, but they are not magic: not contrary to the laws of physics, chemistry or neurology. It is easily possible to get a person to feel themselves too heavy to get off a chair. But it will not result in any extra pressure on the chair. Two other words that will be used in this book are Subject and Client. The former will normally refer to a person whose functioning is being changed by a Hypnotist, and the latter by a Hypnotherapist. Some Hypnotherapi sts use the term Patient in place of Client. SUMMARYHYPNOSIS is the area of knowledge concerned with certain naturalistic changes in the functioning of the mind and nervous system. HYPNOTHERAPY is the application of such knowledge to help individuals with a related class of problems. We will not use the concept of a â€Å"state of hypnosis† in this book. Home | Contents | Introduction | Next Chapter CHAPTER 2 Hypnotic Phenomena IN ORDER TO GET a clearer view of the Subject matter of Hypnosis we will next look at some of the more common phenomena which have been reliably produced in certain people in an experimental setting as well as by Hypnotherapists or stage Hypnotists.There is no real disagreement about the existence of these phenomena. Others may be added to the list below and there can be disagreement over the precise nature of what is happening in them and also about theories designed to explain how they are happening. But there is general agreement that the phenomena do characterise the field of Hypnosis. In each of these examples it must be remembered that no claim is made that the particular phenomenon can be produced with equal ease in everyone, nor that it will be possible in everyone.Remember that we are dealing with naturalistic phenomena. The fact that some individuals are colour blind does not invalidate the phenomenon of full colour vision in others. The fact that some individuals have poor memories and take a lot of time to learn things does not negate the achievements of certain individuals who can memorise enormous amounts quickly. The fact that not everybody can run a mile in under 6 minutes does not affect the fact that a great number could, with practice, or that there are many who can run it in under 4 minutes.Neither does the fact that the world record time has been reducing allow us to deduce that a 2 minute mile will some day be possible. The general principles of ALL human behaviour or achievement are that there is a range in the capacity of different individuals to produce certain behaviour; that anyone's capacity can be improved by proper practice; and that there are natural limits to what can be done. If Hypnosis dealt with phenomena which did NOT obey these principles it would be a very strange Subject indeed.Consequently in reading the following, remember always that each example is something that can be produced to a high degree quite easily in some people, to a lesser degree and/or in more time in others, and finally to no significant extent in any reasonable time with yet others. It is also a fact that there is only a loose correlation between an individual's capacity to produce one phenomenon and another, rather in the way that if you are very good at geography there is a better than average chance that you will also be good at history, but it is far from certain.The stage Hypnotist works within these constraints of nature by selecting from the audience, by means of various tests, those individ uals in which the phenomena of interest can be produced most easily. The Hypnotherapist, who has to work with a wider range of individuals, will tend to use more time and a variety of methods in order to offset the limitations that may arise in a particular individual. Some Hypnotic Phenomena In the following list the phenomena are grouped into those areas of the brain or nervous system or body which they involve.VOLUNTARY MUSCULAR SYSTEM At one time it was a popular part of a demonstration of stage Hypnotism for the Hypnotist to get a Subject to go completely rigid. So great was this rigidity that the Subject could be supported on two chairs by his head and heels alone. And as if this were not enough the Hypnotist would be able to sit or stand on the supported body with no complaint from the Subject or yielding of his body! This has now been banned in the UK by the Hypnotism Act of 1952, as it could lead to physical damage.At the opposite extreme from this, it is comparatively easy to induce in those same large muscles of the body an extreme limpness or relaxation which is so great that the Subject feels unable to move them. In between these extremes there are a variety of phenomena in which a large group of muscles – those of an arm, perhaps – will move in response not to the perceived will of the Subject, but rather in response to verbal suggestions from the Hypnotist. INVOLUNTARY MUSCULAR SYSTEM There are many muscles in the body which we do not normally expect to be able to control at will.These include the heart, which is one big muscle, the small muscles which expand and contract to control the flow of blood through veins and arteries, and the muscles of the stomach and alimentary system which push the food along its way. Hypnotic techniques have been shown to be able to affect these. Heart rate may be increased quite a lot, and reduced to a lesser extent. The flow of blood can be altered so that, for example, it can be increased to warm t he feet or decreased to cool them. The flow of blood to the face can be altered in order to induce or reduce blushing. And so on. SENSORY SYSTEMSAnother popular phenomenon for the stage Hypnotist is to get a Subject to eat an onion under the impression that it is an apple. In order for this to be possible – and with every indication of enjoyment – there must have been changes in that person's perception of taste, smell and also vision. In general it is possible to change the messages from any sense. The sense of touch can be altered either so that a certain kind of numbness results in which a touch cannot be felt at all, or, conversely, so that it reports the presence of a stimulus which has no basis in reality – for example, that an insect is crawling over the skin.Glove anaesthesia is a term often used in Hypnotherapy to describe a situation in which nothing is felt in one or both hands up to the wrist – as if a thick glove is being worn which makes it impossible to feel things. The related sense of pressure can likewise be affected, all the way from feeling no sensation of the pressure of the body on the chair to a great sensation of pressure on the chest which has no outward cause, for example. The sense of smell may be affected either to produce anosmia – the absence of all sensation of smell – or to change the perceptions so that one smell becomes interpreted as another.A pleasant scent can be made to smell like hydrogen sulphide – rotten eggs – or ammonia like a rose. The related sense of taste can likewise be affected to change either the quality of the taste or its intensity. Sweet can turn to sour and vice versa, or can simply vanish. The sense of hearing can be affected so that the Subject fails to respond at all to a certain class of sounds, while remaining aware of others – for example, he may remain aware of the Hypnotist's voice, but unaware of anyone else or any background noise.The sense of sight can be affected in a similar way so that things which are there may not be noticed and things which are not present are visualised as vividly as if they were there. A popular stage trick is to give the Subject â€Å"X-ray glasses† which seem to be able to see through the clothes of anyone looked at. The sense of orientation may be altered so that, for example, a feeling of lying at a steep angle can be induced in a person lying horizontally, or a feeling of falling in someone who is standing vertically.The sense of temperature may be affected so that a part or whole of the body is perceived as being either hotter or colder than it is in reality, though there is no change measurable by a thermometer. The sense of pain, though it is so much more acute than the other senses, follows the same pattern. Because of its importance it has received a great deal of experimental attention and the basic facts have been established conclusively. It is indeed true that a per son can be induced by Hypnotic procedures to be consciously aware of less pain in a given circumstance, or, on the other hand, of more.HABITUAL SYSTEMS A typical habit is a complex pattern of behaviour which is carried out automatically with little or no conscious thought. Although it may involve the same groups of muscles that are involved in the phenomena mentioned above, it is really a higher order phenomenon of the nervous system. Such habits are regulated primarily by a part of the brain called the cerebellum – and altering habits is therefore altering the functioning of a part of the brain.For the stage Hypnotist the task is often to establish a new habit, such as standing and declaiming something when a certain piece of music plays. For a Hypnotherapist the task is the more difficult one of preventing a long-established habit, such as smoking or nail-biting, from continuing. EMOTIONAL SYSTEMS The emotions tend to shade into each other more gradually than do the senses: it is hard to put a clear line between a pleasure and happiness in the way that we can distinguish touch and pain, for example.But the principles we have seen above in the senses continue to hold in the sphere of the emotions. Whether we consider love, liking, excitement, pleasure, happiness, or fear, anger, grief, guilt, depression or any other shade of feeling, it is true that they can be induced or suppressed or altered in quality. Although feelings do not seem to us to be localised, in terms of our physiology they are primarily a function of a certain structure in the brain called the limbic system. So in altering emotions we are again dealing with a part of the brain.This part is in direct contact with a small gland in the brain called the thalamus, which produces hormones which in turn affect other endocrine glands in the body. The best known of these are the adrenal gland and the ovaries or testes. If a person is induced by some Hypnotic technique to feel fear or excitement then the adrenal glands respond as a part of the process. This underlines the fact that Hypnotic techniques can also affect the functioning of the endocrine system. Another example might be the arousal or suppression of sexual feelings, which would be accompanied by changes in the level of sexual hormones.RELATIONSHIPS Of very great importance to most people are their relationships with others. A relationship is a complex pattern of feelings and habitual actions and responses in two or more people, so it involves systems which have been mentioned above. Very often the problem presented to the Hypnotherapist lies in this area, and the task is to sort out what parts of the complex pattern it is best to change in order to improve matters. Insofar as it is possible to alter feelings and actions by Hypnotic techniques, it is by the same token possible to alter the course of a relationship.IMMUNE SYSTEM Scattered through the literature on the subject there are accounts of the use of Hypno tic techniques to influence the body's ability to react to a wide range of illnesses, including cancer. Perhaps the best evidence underpinning the validity of these reports is the very well-attested fact of the Placebo Response. This simply says that for virtually any illness there will be a certain proportion of sufferers who will recover significantly better if they are given something that they believe will work, even if it is totally neutral medicinally.Insofar as Hypnotic techniques can evidently change an individual's belief about all manner of things, as we have seen, there is every reason to suppose that it can act as well as, if not better than the beliefs involved in the Placebo Response to help people's bodies to heal themselves. MENTAL SYSTEMS We have seen that emotions and habits are both properly seen to be functions of the brain, though they may not be thought to be so by the man in the street. We will now consider a few more functions of the brain which are more obvi ously so.Memory is a particular function of the brain which has also been demonstrably affected by Hypnotic procedures. It, also, can be enhanced, inhibited, made selective or falsified. On the stage a popular alteration is to make the Subject forget some quite simple thing, like the name of a colour or the number 7. The Subject may struggle very hard to recall the missing fact but fail totally. An alternative is to get him to believe that something is true or has happened which has not. If a Subject is induced to â€Å"remember† that another person has cheated him in some way, he will start to act in a way which is amusing to the audience.But the serious side to this is that certain individuals can be influenced to believe that they have remembered episodes or early sexual abuse which never in fact happened. The problems that can arise from this are termed the False Memory Syndrome. Concentration is another high-order mental faculty which can be intimately affected by Hypnot ic techniques. It is not uncommon to come across cases in which the Subject responds exclusively to the voice of the Hypnotist, and seems totally oblivious to all else. This is a particular case of total concentration.Equally it can be possible to make concentration on any subject very difficult. More generally the entire mental framework can be altered, as when a Subject can be induced to imagine himself to be Elvis Presley, or some other person, and act, respond and answer questions from the viewpoint of that person. Since this book is not encyclopaedic there is no need to list ALL possibilities. Enough has now been said to indicate something of the range of changes that have been recorded. SUMMARY Hypnotic procedures have been demonstrated in laboratories and elsewhere to produce a wide range of changes in the functioning of human beings.Something of the range has been listed above. Home | Contents | Previous Chapter | Next Chapter Principles of Hypnosis: CHAPTER 3 Introducing Sy stems A very important idea which is central to future development is that of systems, and particularly organic systems. This chapter introduces some of the basic properties of systems which will recur throughout the book, primarily their level of activity, and the most basic ways in which they might affect each other. An important shorthand notation is also presented. IN THE LAST CHAPTER the word â€Å"system† frequently arose.In our growing understanding of the functioning of body and brain, scientists have come to recognise the nature and modes of functioning of many systems in the body. There are the nervous system, the digestive system, the cardiovascular system, the limbic system, the endocrine system, the immune system, the muscular system and so on. Each of these systems has an identifiable structure. The nerves are the physical structure of the nervous system; the heart plus veins and arteries and their associated small muscles form the structure of the cardiovascula r system, and so on.But equally, if not more, important are the processes which the system undergoes. The existence of the heart has been known since prehistoric time. But the fact that it circulates the blood only became understood with William Harvey (1578-1637) in the early seventeenth century. The existence of the major planets of our solar system was also known from prehistoric times, but the principles of their movements were only properly described by Newton (1642-1727) in the latter half of the seventeenth century.To get any proper idea of a system we must know how it works; what kinds of processes it undergoes; what are the principles governing those processes. The difference is related to the difference between seeing a thing in static terms and dynamic terms. This great change has taken place in a multitude of sciences, and each time has heralded a great increase in understanding. Darwin's Theory of Evolution is an example of a change from a view which held that species w ere fixed to one in which they changed in certain ways for specific reasons.The theory of continental drift has similarly transformed geology. As a simple analogy illustrating this matter from another angle, consider the position of a car mechanic. He might well be able to put quite a few things right by following a few tried and tested procedures that he has found to be effective in some instances. But unless he understands the principles governing the function of the various parts of the machine, his ability is going to be strictly limited: he will have no real idea of why the changes he makes are effective, and so his work will remain rather hit and miss.He has to know how and why the parts move or operate in order to understand things properly. It will be clear from the last chapter that the field of interest of Hypnotherapy is intimately involved with the functioning of effectively all the major systems of the mind and body. In order to understand what we are doing we are there fore forced to give thought to understanding the nature of these organic systems, and in particular to understanding their modes of functioning and interacting. There is no option. The phenomena are clear. That they involve changes to systems of the body is clear.That the changes are not to their structure (we are not surgeons) is clear. That we change the behaviour is clear. Consequently we are dealing with the dynamics of complex organic systems. If we are to form an idea of the principles of Hypnosis we are therefore forced to start with a picture, however simple, of the dynamics of the organic or biological subsystems of human beings. The study of the dynamics of organic systems in general is a growth area: it is highly relevant to economics, ecology, sociology and biology, and has been approached from all those areas.I have not been able to find an existing approach, however, which is well-adapted to the kinds of systems and dynamics involved in Hypnosis. The following language and methodology is therefore designed specifically to be useful in our field, though it can be generalised to others. How does one start to design a dynamical theory? It is a tried and trusted principle that one should as far as possible work with observables. To base a theory on unobservables is to be working in the dark: there is no way of verifying if the theory is right or wrong and no way of refining it.What observables therefore can we say are applicable to all the systems of mind and body in which we are interested? The answer which I will adopt is: the level of activity. It is possible, by means of very fine electrodes, to measure quite precisely the level of activity of a single neuron (nerve cell). It is easily possible to measure the mean activity of the heart – the heart rate. It is possible to get a good measure of the level of activity of a muscle by means of seeing what force it can resist, or by its oxygen consumption.The overall level of activity of a region of the brain can be estimated by measuring the rise in temperature of that region (a method used over a century ago) or more modern methods involving measuring electrical activity (EEG) or local blood flow and metabolism – positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The activity of various glands can be estimated by measuring the concentration of the hormones they produce in the blood. And so on.Although the functions of the various systems are of course distinct, we can in each case form at last a qualitative and very often a precise quantitative measure of its activity at a given time, and hence how its activity is changing with time. Later, in Part C, we will discuss a more exact definition of activity, applicable to all systems, but at this introductory level it is enough to note that the intuitively clear notion of activity is something that is in principle observable for systems of the body. We will therefore base our theory on the notion o f the activity of a system.Let us now take a very brief look at a simple Hypnotic process with this idea in mind. A fairly typical Hypnotic induction as used by a Hypnotherapist today may proceed as follows. First of all the Subject's eyes may be induced to close, by one of a number of methods which usually involve fixing the gaze on some point, and some form of verbal suggestion that eyes will get tired until they close. However it is done, it is clear that the result must be a great reduction in the activity of the whole of the part of the visual system involved in viewing the external world.With the eyes closed all the nerves from the retinas to the visual cortex will become quiescent. A typical second step is to encourage physical relaxation. This again may be accomplished in a variety of ways: each group of muscles may first be tensed so that there will be a natural rebound into a more relaxed state; there may simply be a focus of attention on groups of muscles and a suggestion of relaxation; there may be the creation of an imaginary scenario such as a warm beach, which is designed to induce relaxed feelings.But however it is done the result is a great reduction of the activity of the main voluntary muscles, and very often the involuntary ones as well. It will be noticed that a typical induction process is a one-way affair. Unless a question is asked, the Client does not talk. This is usually accomplished by the Hypnotist maintaining a steady flow of speech in which there are no cues for the Subject to respond verbally. But however it is done, the result is that the active speech-producing system often becomes very inactive. The pattern is clear.The Hypnotherapist is reducing the activity of nearly all systems one by one. Higher-order faculties which are harder to observe, such as an internal verbal analysis of what is going on and a critical analysis of its content, are typically also reduced. There is, however, at least one exception to the general rule that systems are inactivated: and that is the aural system. The Subject must continue to be able to hear the Hypnotherapist. Ideally this system should become more active than usual: the intention is for the listener to respond more than usual to what is said by the Hypnotherapist.This may be accompanied by a reduction of attention to other sounds. Another possible exception will be a partic